Person-Centered Therapy and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy...

In the 1940s Carl Rogers was well on his way to revolutionizing the state of traditional, directive psychotherapy and pioneering what would soon become the person-centered approach. Although Rogers strayed from the psychological mainstream’s view that therapists drive their clients recovery through such mediums as advice, direction, teaching and interpretation he still believed that the therapist’s role was crucial, and it was their attributes that paved the way to increased awareness and self-directed change. Roger’s initially developed nondirective counseling, which stressed nondirective methods such as reflecting and†¦show more content†¦Roger’s traditional person-centered therapy is perhaps the greatest example of â€Å"talk therapy† as there is not any homework, specific techniques, or behavior to be changed. Instead, the success of the therapy lies in the process and letting clients experience this process as fully as possible. Therefore, it may be surprising that Natalie Roger’s person-centered expressive arts therapy has shifted away from traditional verbal means of expression to more creative means. According to Sommers-Flanagan, through mediums such as movement, drawing, painting, music, writing and improvisation â€Å"clients peel away the layers of defense and find their true nature† (2007). Expressive art therapy is not concerned with the end product (client’s do not create a piece to hang on the wall) but rather the process of using art to delve into a client’s pain, rage, or grief is the goal. Therefore, just as in Roger’s person-centered therapy the process is the focal point but the mediums used are quite different. Through these mediums clients find other ways to go inward, other ways to speak. Like her father’s person-centered therapy, Natalie Roger’s expressive arts therapy is nondirective and lets client’s lead the process and trusts them to find the modalities they can learn from (Sommers-Flanagan, 2007). Since Roger’s person-centered theory lacks specific techniques, another recent trend has been to integrate cognitive-behavioral techniquesShow MoreRelated Person Centered Therapy and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder 1203 Words   |  5 Pagestoday. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is another popular theory that is used. It emphasizes the present and fixing cognitive distortions that clients may have. However, it too received some arguments against it, such as; treating symptoms and not the underlying cause of an illness. The theories that will be discussed are Carl Roger’s theory of Person Centered Therapy, Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and how they would treat Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). In Person Centered therapyRead MoreCentered Therapy And Cognitive Behavioral Therapy1672 Words   |  7 PagesCentered Therapy and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Etiology of Problems Person-Centered Therapists don’t use standardized diagnostic tools to assess client presenting problems – as a way to avoid the kinds of labels that harm client-therapist relationships and as a way to avoid clumping clients together with others of the same condition. A more important initial goal for Person-Centered Therapists is to ensure that the student or client knows and believes that the therapist sees them all as individualsRead MoreDefinition Of Person Centered Therapy1202 Words   |  5 Pages Person-Centered Theory Kebeh Beyan Walden University Person-centered therapy can be understood as a form of counseling and psychotherapy which puts a particular emphasis on conceptualizing and engaging with people in a deeply valuing and respectful way (Cooper McLeod, 2011). It was also mentioned that Person-centered therapy aims to provide clients with a set of therapeutic conditions in which they can reconnect with their actual, individual experiences and valuing processes, movingRead MoreTheories And Theories Of Counseling1051 Words   |  5 Pagesindividual. Cognitive-Behavior Theory Cognitive-behavioral theories are described as a set of related theories, which have evolved over time. There isn’t real definition of cognitive-behavioral theory. Both theories are tied together by similarities and techniques strategies. Cognitive Behavior theories maintain their role in which cognitions play in behavior and personalities. Cognitive-behavioral techniques target both cognitive and behavioral problems with the use of cognitive and behavioral strategiesRead MorePsychology Methods1267 Words   |  6 Pagesbetween two therapies used in psychology. The approaches are known as the Client-Centered Approach and the Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. They are both used daily, world-wide, and can be seen in different ways. In psychology, the use of therapy, approaches, and techniques are used all the time. The client-centered model is all about the clients themselves and the cognitive behavioral therapy relies on direct counseling tools to control and guide the client. C ognitive behavioral therapy is more short-termRead MoreAnalysis Of The One That Caught My Attention And Interest1589 Words   |  7 Pagespresented, the one that caught my attention and interest was that of John, the 24 year old recent college graduate and mechanical engineer. I began our session by inviting John to tell me a little about his concerns and what has bought him into therapy to see me. Though hesitant at first, I positioned myself a little closer to John, sitting directly across from him, conversation style, leaning forward somewhat showing him he had my undivided attention while using direct eye contact, John soon cameRead MoreCurrent Treatment Of Conditions Case Study704 Words   |  3 PagesRehabilitation Counseling: Basics and beyond, by Parker and Patterson, there is an entire chapter dedicated to counseling theories. A few therapies mentioned throughout Chapter 5, Counseling Theories, entail: Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy, Person Centered Counseling, and Cognitive Therapy. Rational emotive behavioral therapy (REBT) is an evidence based therapy in which assists an individual to change their thinking from irrational to rational using the A-B-C model (Parker Patterson, 2012)Read MoreContrasting Psycodynamic, Cognitive Behavioral and Person-Centered Counseling Theories1732 Words   |  7 PagesCounseling is a process that enables a person to sort out issues and reach decisions affecting their life. Often counseling is sought out at times of change or crisis, it need not be so, however, as counseling can also help us at any time of our life† (Woods, 2005). Counseling theories are used by counselors as part of their treatment plan for clients. There are many types of theories that counselors can choose from. These theories are usually hosen based on the client needs and what the counselorRead MoreExamining Effectiveness Of Treatment Strategies Used With Survivors Of Rape1357 Words   |  6 PagesExamining Effectiveness of Treatment Strategi es Used With Survivors of Rape Therapy for survivors of rape is often difficult to obtain. The lack of availability of counselors who specialize in specific trauma treatments, like prolonged exposure and cognitive-processing therapy, as well as lack of insurance and location, are hardships for treatment-seeking individuals. Therefore, it is important to pinpoint the most effective treatments for those who have suffered the trauma of rape. The purposeRead MoreEssay about Contrast Effective Biblical Counseling Concepts1412 Words   |  6 Pagesworldly challenges, a Christian counselor also faces humanistic therapeutic false views of secular therapy. Christian counselors maintain a focal point in guiding people to living a life that is full of spiritual richness and maturity. Yet, secular therapist focuses on self-gratification and self-actualization. As Christian ministry helpers, you must be living by the truth and exemplify a Christ-centered life. Crabb (1977) developed a counseling model that teaches us ho w to develop individualized

Ethical And Ethical Norms Of Human Services - 1492 Words

When looking at ethical dilemmas in human services one must be able identify and address the dilemma properly. Within the module for this week I am to evaluate three different dilemma scenarios and describe how I would approach each. In addition, I will be identifying what steps in the evaluation process I have used to make my decision on each ethical dilemma. The first ethical dilemma states that a student is feeling sexually harassed by a teacher. She then states that she wants it to be over and that she doesn’t want to file a grievance report. My first feeling towards this scenario is that the student is obviously upset by the situation and the fact that she wants to leave it alone makes it harder to address. The Ethical standards that I think apply to the situation are as follows; Ethical Standard 3 and Ethical Standard 8 (Ethical Standards, 2016). I have chosen Ethical standard 3 because the client is being sexually harassed and the case manager must decide if the situat ion constitutes for a legal break in confidentiality or not. I chose Ethical Standard 8 because it is another standard that addresses client privacy (Ethical Standards, 2016). Standard 8 states that anything about the client to another colleague must be approved prior (Ethical Standards, 2016). My concern is definitely on what the client is feeling. She obviously doesn’t want to make a big deal about the situation but I am concerned that ignoring the harassment will make her situation even worse. OnceShow MoreRelatedEssay on Uop Ethics/316 Week 5 Cross Cultural Perspectives1340 Words   |  6 Pagesto similar ethical scenarios. Beekum, Stedam, and Yamamura (2003) suggest these differing conclusions will lead to conflict where one side perceives the outcome is ethical whereas the other does not. Another possible outcome is that one side may not even see a decision even being morally significant. Global organizations have the additional challenge when operating within a multi-national environment of recognizing cultural differences while maintaining a core moral and ethical foundation. Read MoreBusiness Ethics Cpa1303 Words   |  6 Pagesthat there are (at least some) objective ethical standards and norms? – Or do you think that ethical standards and norms are subjective, merely a matter of what you subjectively feel is right / wrong? (from our discussion of Ethical Subjectivism) Subjectivism says that the moral values are dependent on a human or divine will, and that they can change from one situation to another. I believe there are some objective ethical standards and norms. Ethical subjectivists might claim that morals areRead MoreThe Psychology Of Psychological Testing Essay1473 Words   |  6 Pagesqualified professionals to enter data, analyze and interpret all tests. APA Ethical Principals The American Psychological Association has compiled, the ethical principles and codes to assure integrity within the generalized field of psychology. Psychological professionals are continually met with ethical quandaries both professionally and personally, the code of ethics serve as a valuable tool for psychological professionals. APA’s 9thRead MoreEthical Dilemm Ethical And Ethical Dilemmas1610 Words   |  7 PagesEthical dilemma is an issue that has no satisfactory resolution. A conflict between two ethical standards and situations can result in ethical dilemma. The ethical behavior of an individual is determined by the cultural norms and the societal norms. This develops a sense of right and wrong which helps in decision making. Failure to make proper decision due to ethical conflict results in ethical dilemma. This is a critical decision making criteria that create the complex situation in the patient’sRead MoreSouthwest Airlines : Economic Challenges And D epression Essay1639 Words   |  7 Pagescities in Texas. After Southwest Airlines acquired AirTran Airways in 2011, it began its international services to three Caribbean destinations which includes Aruba, Bahamas and Jamaica. Today the company has over 50,00 employees and more than 100 million customers, and they serve about 96 destinations in 41 states of U.S. and they are also the largest user of Boeing 737 worldwide with over 700 in service presently and they fly more than 3900 flights a day. A lot of other companies find it amazing howRead MoreOutsourcing Ethics604 Words   |  3 Pagesand services. These advantages can help a company gain a competitive advantage over industry participants. When a company strategically plans to outsource ethical consideration must be acknowledged; especially when outsourcing is offshore. As a display of corporate citizenship a company must do their part to address ethical concerns related to this practice. Building a long term relationship with the outsourced company will aid in cultivating the competitive advantage. The following ethical principlesRead MoreWhat s Next? America1260 Words   |  6 Pagestheir children. Whether it’s Puritans in the 1600’s, Irish Protestants in the 1800’s, Eastern European Jews in the early 1900’s or African tribal minorities in the late 1900’s, they undoubtedly didn’t flee to be discriminated against and get denied service. And the list continues, The Diffa Arabs in Niger, LGBT communities in The Middle East and Africa, Political refugees from China and the Soviet Union, and War refugees from Syria. Almost every immigrant to ever come to this country, came to escapeRead MoreEvaluating the Difference Between Right and Wrong with Ethics1577 Words   |  6 Pagesevaluate and differentiate between right and wrong, morality and immorality. Ethics helps us to decide questions regarding human conduct when he/she comes to a position when there is doubt between choosing the right way or the wrong one. The concepts of merit and demerit, justice and crime are very much related to the basic concepts of ethics. If we don’t have the basic idea of ethical behavior then there is much less probability of prevalence of justice in the society and community at large. Ethics hasRead MoreSocial Care Environment: Ethical Practice Essay1050 Words   |  5 PagesWhen working in a social care environment, ethical practice plays a major part in every aspect of your work. This essay will explain what ethical practise is, how it affects the social care industry, and some examples as to how it could play an important role in daily work. Ethical practise is difficult to properly define. â€Å"Caseworkers, supervisors, and other staff should be guided by an overarching set of ethical standards that inform their decision-making and conduct when working with childrenRead MoreApplication Of Leadership Theory Paper1606 Words   |  7 PagesApplication of Leadership Theory Paper Ethical Leadership in the workplace has a tremendous impact and influence on people who are following the leader. Therefore, ethical leadership is the ability, to consistently examine oneself in terms of values, behaviors, and conduct in leading people, within an organization. It is important to note, that ethical leadership has the ability to influence other people, attitudes and a leader also has the ability, to transform people, in unique ways, by setting

Threat faced by Finance & Accounting Professional-Free-Samples

Question: Explain the various threats which can be faced by a Finance and Accounting professional, working as an auditor, consultant or an employee in an organisation. Answer: Introduction This assignment is about the professionals of accounting, in this assignment we are going to discuss about various aspects of the ethical issues that is faced by the auditors, accountants or the consultants of the organization(Ittelson, 2010). Financial accounting is all about preparing financial statements of an organization that shows the financial position to the investors, governments, general public, potential investors, competitors of an organization. Every organization in this world whether operating its business on a small scale, medium scale or a large scale is required to prepare financial statements as it comes under a compulsory legal laws(Helfert, 2016). Every organization in this world is liable to prepare and maintain its financial statement. The financial statements are made by professional accountants or auditors, these financial statements cannot be verified and published until it is thoroughly checked and signed by an auditor or an accountant(Fridson, 2014). These statements are sometimes contains false information to show an organization more profitable than it actually is. So in this assignment we are going to discuss about these ethical issues. The financial statements are of various types and all these are need to be prepared by an organization, these statements are; Income Statement, Balance Sheet, Cash Flow Statement and Statement of Retained Earnings(Tracy, 2013). Critical Analysis Financial statements are the statements that show the financial standing of an organization to the outer world. Sometimes these statements are prepared with wrong intentions of showing an organization much more profitable than its actual position, this is done in order to raise more and more of capital from the market(Brodersen, 2014). There have been so many cases worldwide of this kind of fraud by many big business organizations. These kinds of organizations do not believes in any ethics, all they want and do is to loot people by preparing false or untrue financial statements(Fraser, 2012). An accountant or an auditor or a finance consultant is the peoples that are so experienced in preparing these statements that only one accountant can prepare false statements for an organization and no one can make a mistake in such statements for years. However not every accountant, auditor or consultant are corrupt or under the influence of graft. Some work with all their ethics and believes in only ethical working(Fabozzi, 2013). Such kind of accountants, auditors, consultant has to face different threat and ethical issues(Epstein, 2016). An accountant or an auditor whosoever is preparing a financial statement for an organization must keep in mind the ethics of doing right and lawful act while preparing the financial statements, sometimes it is the organization itself that wants their accountants to prepare the financial statement and do not disclose the facts of loss so that it does not lose its market share by the true disclosure of the facts. There are different types of ethical issues that are faced by the accountants or auditors in an organization while preparing the financial statements of a firm(Lister, 2016): Fraud in Financial Reporting: The burden from management on the accountant to not to or to misstate the financial transactions of the organization so that it does not shows any inflow or outflow of the cash, or recording of some transactions that are not as per the accounting principles. Misappropriation of Assets: It is the misuse of the assets of the organization in a way that it incurs losses for the organization. Management puts burden on the accountants or the auditors to not to disclose any misappropriation of the assets. Disclosure: Another ethical issue that is faced by the accountants or the auditors by the management of an organization is to not to disclose or to disclose wrong information to effect the decisions of investors. Any person who wants to invest will always invest in an organization that is earning good money, so financial statements are the tools in the hands of the investors to judge the profitability of the organization. By false disclosures an organization can attract a large number of investors and their money. Cases of Financial Statement Frauds In the year 1998, an organization that was based in Houston, reported fake earnings of around 2 billion US dollars. All this was done in order to raise money from the investors. The companys auditor increased the depreciation on the property, plants and equipments of the organization. The main guilty personalities in this case were founder and the CEO Dean. L Buntrock along with his top executives and their auditor Arthur Anderson(Degree, 2017). Another Houston based organization in the year 2001 committed a fraud due to which the shareholder of the organization lost their 74 billion US dollars. The organization and its accountant did not disclose the high debts of the organization because of which its position always shown in profits. This fraud not only left the investors in the lose but also took the jobs of many innocent employees of the same organization. Conclusion Here is a brief and a concise conclusion has been provided. Ethical issues in accounting are not new, while there are many accountants or auditors that fall for greed and ignore all the ethics of preparing financial reports then there comes the ones who always put forward their ethics and becomes whistleblower to put an end on the fraud practices of the organizations. The accountants or the auditors must follow their ethics as no fraud or false disclosure can remain safe for a long period of time. In the case of the 1rst Houston company the former CEO and auditor made fraud while the later newly recruited team found out the fraud and reported it to the higher authorities which resulted in the penalty on the CEO of 437M US dollars. So the final conclusion is all the accountants and the auditors or the financial consultants should follow their ethics and must not let the management to come in between their work and ethics. Bibliography Brodersen, P. P. (2014). Warren Buffett Accounting Book. Degree, A. (2017, January 23rd). AccountingDegree. Retrieved March 25th, 2018, from AccountingDegree.com: https://www.accounting-degree.org/scandals/ Epstein, L. (2016). Reading financial reports. The Accounting Review , 2. Fabozzi, F. J. (2013). Analysis of Financial Statements. Auditing: A Journal of Practice Theory , 7. Fraser, A. O. (2012). Understanding Financial Statements. KMF Publishers. Fridson, M. (2014). Financial Statement Analysis: A Practitioner's Guide. Marshley Printing Press. Helfert, E. (2016). Techniques of Financial Analysis. Accounting Finance , 2. Ittelson, T. R. (2010). Financial Statements: A Step?by?step Guide to Understanding. SYdney: J.L Printing and Press. Lister, J. (2016, Feburary 25th). Chron. Retrieved March 2018, from Chron.com: https://smallbusiness.chron.com/ethical-issues-facing-accounting-profession-18307.html Tracy, J. A. (2013). How to read a financial report : wringing vital signs out of the numbers. Accounting Horizons , 5.

World Wide Web Business Analysis Essay Example

World Wide Web Business Analysis Essay There has been an evolution of ways in doing business. From early ages when barter system used to be applied by man to this age when business operations are done on a single mouse click, it is a long journey. This journey started from barter trading when man started exchanging things for meeting his basic necessities such as food, cloth, shelter, etc. By the time medium of exchange kept on altering from stone coins, leather coins, metal coins, and then paper currency which evolved from currency to card having credit, which further advanced to plastic cards which has advanced even more today. This is a money-less exchange or virtual money. Payments are not made through currency but it is more or less made through cards now. Now business is also carried out on internet right away and there are websites that are specific for online business. (Guru, 2007). The era where all the transactions are shifting to the virtual world of internet, how can the banking sector left behind in the race of advancement?   Although the innovation in this field can be an arduous job to do but once it’s done it can be way too profitable and convenient for a firm itself and the client too. Therefore the task of transforming the manually operational firms to digital firms got started and finally got achieved. In this paper we will examine and evaluate the online banking services of Bank of America and assess the features such as user friendliness, compatibility, security and others and present our findings about the bank’s website. Emergence of e-commerce in Banking Basically when customers can access their bank accounts and carry out their banking transaction without going to bank just through any intelligent device like their personal computer or mobile phone, this trend is referred as banking online (Comptroller of the Currency Administrator of National Banks, 1999). Bank of America also facilitates its customers with online banking options where they can do a number of operations and real time transactions on a single mouse click. We will write a custom essay sample on World Wide Web Business Analysis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on World Wide Web Business Analysis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on World Wide Web Business Analysis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer But along with the merits there are always demerits too. With the practice of doing business online, a great many thefts have been observed which resulted in loss of money and precious information. These thefts were due to hacking of information in the middle of transactions. In banking due to this treat, there were so many risks credit risk, interest rate risk, liquidity risk, price risk, transaction risk, foreign exchange risk, compliance risk, strategic risk and above all of them the reputation and credibility risks (Comptroller of the Currency Administrator of National Banks, 1999). Bank of America not only introduced many internet banking features but additionally this corporation helped the humanity in bringing out ways to transfer data in a very safe n secure manner. The employment of new technologies is discussed below in the paper which includes Site Key feature along with Safe Pass and Check scanning. Briefly these were the features which added an extra layer over the other frequently used protocols. Bank of America: Website’s features Overview These online banking options   includes products and services that the firm offers e.g. Checking, Savings, Credit Cards, Mortgage, Refinance, Auto loans, investing services, Individual Retirement Account, Insurance, and other specialized features as well. Bank of America provides its customers with the management of their accounts too, this includes fees and processes such as student banking overdraft fee, monthly service fee, management of balances etc., upgrading or reordering of check cards, online investments, Online Banking options such as viewing accounts, accessing credit cards, Bill Pay, Tracking expenses and also the Mobile Banking features (Bank of America, 2008). One of the most intuitive options for people is also provided in this website which is a helpdesk in which they help and guide people in achieving their goals like buying a home, searching for a home, retirement centre, planning for a college, student loan, purchasing a car, strengthening debts, small business o nline community and many other financial goals achievement help. One can also open an account online. This website also offers security and privacy validation checks. Searching locations of branches is made easy for the customers by providing numerous options in the website. Besides that the website contains signing in to other services too. The website is also providing its achievements list in different banking transactions and asking for guidance on many places (Bank of America, 2008). Types of advertisement The site map is not available unless we sign up. Most of the options are for members; where as many promotional offers and help desk features are publically available. There are no banner ads on the website of any other company. The site do has some banner ads but only for their promotional offers. As far as my observation is concerned I have hardly seen any of their promotion on any other website or advertisement on television or radio. They host their website internally, not by any external host who can manage websites. Technologies used The technologies employed by the company are numerous. On their website they have put a video promotion for their visa card offer which seems very interactive that attracts the customer a lot and persuades him to have an account in the Bank of America. They have also employed some new technologies such as ‘Safe Pass and Site Key’ (Boston College, 2008) and ‘Check Scanning’ (Boston College, 2008). Safe Pass Safe Pass is a very ground-breaking technology introduced by the Bank of America where it proof reads the process of securing member’s information in order to keep from threatening activities of hacker. A member is given a 6-digit code on his smart device which a member must enter before carrying out transactions online. This code is changed once it is used and another random pass-code is generated for the transactions to be carried out next. As this information is only sent to you on your personal device and your card therefore there is no chance of its exposure. If card is stolen, even then there is no other personal information so it is of no use for the thief (Boston College, 2008). Site Key Site Key is a series of steps required before a transaction is made, its specialty is a secret image that is selected by a member and its name is kept by the member himself therefore if a password or pass-code gets hacked, this image would leave the hacker with nothing on his hands. Although there are numerous security protocols applied on internet transactions that prevents the user from the exposure of his personal information but these added features satisfies the bank’s customers that their information is safe while doing online transactions (Boston College, 2008). Check Scanning Check Scanning is yet another feature from the Bank of America which prevents the user to go to any of the branches and get a check cashed into currency; instead a user scans that check into ATM and the screen displays the check with the required amount. This makes customers capable of cashing their checks anywhere and anytime they want in a very secure way (Boston College, 2008). Although an OSI Model Architecture provides with a safe traversal of information and when it comes to secret information there are added layers of protocols to safely transmit and receive the data like Secure Sockets Layer known as SSL which is kept on presentation layer of an OSI model.   We often watch an eye icon on the screen of internet explorer; this icon shows the presence of SSL protocol which ensures safe data transmission. These added layers applied by the Bank of America are like confirming the strict security of user’s precious information. Policies, Annual Reports, Forms and Acknowledgement The website of The Bank of America has published their annual reports, quarterly reports, and current reports known as 10-K, 10-Q, and 8-K respectively on their websites for public. They have also kept the amendments of those reports as filings for public viewing. All these reports are in accordance with Security Exchange Act 1934. Filings are filed by Security Exchange Commission know as SEC. The website also provides with the policies and rules such as Code of Ethics and Insider Training Policy, Corporate Governance, and the charter of its Board Committees. The amendments to all these guidelines are also available from Chief Accounting Officer, Chief Executive Officer, and Chief Financial Officer (Bank of America, 2006). Their strategies for growth include Global Consumer and Small Business Banking which focuses on retail financial services (Bank of America, 2008). Another strategy is Global Wealth and Investment Management which focuses on Premier Banking that brings overseas cust omers to the Bank. Also there is Global Corporate and Investment Banking which is for the betterment of many e.g. shareholders, corporate and commercial clients, and financial-sponsor clients. The other paths for growth of the company may be acquisition of capital, financing the economy which can compel the future growth of company. Keeping good relationship with neighbors would make strong market. These strategies can make them grow as said by the chairman, Chief Executive Officer and President of Bank of America Kenneth D. Lewis. The Bank of America is in competition with other corporations through its website, this competition holds in terms of customer relationship management, customer services, interest rates, lending boundaries, etc. as the corporation is providing internet-based features of finance which other competitors are also doing but either they have a low-cost structure or possession of regulatory constraints. Besides internet-based financing activities they are also providing products and offering services on internet, which is grand in itself but obviously applying technology can be expensive too therefore the services should be offered in such a way that it is immediately adopted by the users so that the burden of cost reduces to its maximum. While doing Small business Banking and grabbing customers from abroad, it is the use of internet that can bring capital of a person living far away to the bank. This is the reason Bank of America is serving up to 29 states, 27 countries which are segregated into some geographic sections United States of America and Canada; Asia; Europe, Middle East, Africa, and has 5873 banking centers and 16,785 domestic branded ATMs, and telephone and internet channels which are mainly providing Real Estate guidance, Admission Assistance, Debit products and consumer deposits (Bank of America, 2006). The Annual Report also states about the Global Business and Financial Services that they finance small businesses. There is a global treasury services provision as well which provides treasury solutions, management of capital, foreign exchange etc. Middle Market Banking provides lending and investment services. Business banking offers client managed small business members some value added services like wide range credit, treasury management, and other advisory services. Leasing services are especially for middle market, small business, and corporate firms in America. Business capital also provides lending services but asset-based. Dealer financial services provides many direct or indirect investing and lending activities that helps in financing for floor, vehicle, marine and auto-dealerships (Bank of America, 2006). Precisely these global activities are bringing great business to the firm, which is made possible only through internet. Otherwise these interactive and innovative servic es would not have been in common practice. E-commerce has proven to be highly profitable to businesses because it needs less man force and bigger operation get done on a small screen. The Bank of America applies new technologies in doing business. Senior Vice President Kirk Lindsey says Customers will get better validation of their deposits and a copy of their check printed on their receipts. It will also give us the ability to have later hours to make deposits without having to pick up the items every day (Boston College, 2008). By applying new things it is over shadowing the others in competition. All this is due to the emergence of e-commerce. Above everything else they have been working hard to enhance security features. The firms in competition imitate what they do but in the bigger picture, it is for the good of mankind today that all their transactions go safe and sound. Conclusion World Wide Web brought out major changes to the way of doing almost everything. Therefore banking sector too cannot be left behind in the race. Bank of America has introduced many technologies in secure online banking. The website of Bank of America gives a number of options that a man can perform anywhere and anytime on a single mouse click and very safely. The journey of trade and commerce has been very strenuous and has advanced to e-commerce now. Each and every transaction that needed to be done by putting in manual and physical effort now can be done virtually in a very secure manner. In this paper, journey of money transactions have been overviewed. How Bank of America facilitates its customers in their website. Features they offer and how and finally their policies have also been discussed in the paper. References Bank of America. (2008). Chairmans Letter. Retrieved February 17, 2009, from Bank of America: http://media.corporate-ir.net/media_files/irol/71/71595/reports/2007_AR/chairman_3.html Bank of America. (2008). Home Page. Retrieved February 17, 2009, from Bank of America: https://www.bankofamerica.com/ Bank of America. (2006, March 16). US SEC Form 10-K Annual Report. Washington D.C., United States of America. Boston College. (2008). Computers in Management. Retrieved February 17, 2009, from Group Project:Bank of America: http://www.socialtext.net/lite/page/cim/group_project_bank_of_america Comptroller of the Currency Administrator of National Banks. (1999). Internet Banking Comptrollers Handbook. Guru, P. (2007, March 11). Emergence of eCommerce eBusiness-Internet Business! Retrieved February 16, 2009, from Ezine Articles: http://ezinearticles.com/?Emergence-of-eCommerceeBusiness-Internet-Business!id=484425

Taking Care Of Our Children Essay Example For Students

Taking Care Of Our Children Essay We who have been entrusted with the education and care of children are obligated to go above and beyond when it comes to looking out for their welfare. Educators and administrators have no recourse but to look beyond the surface, investigate if necessary, and protect the children to whom we have made ourselves responsible. Dave Pelzer, who is currently an advocate for abused children, has written a compelling three book series detailing his own life as an abused child and the aftereffects of his abuse. His case was the third worst case of child abuse on record in the state of California. (Pelzer, 1995, 168) Pelzers mother was an alcoholic who was both physically and emotionally abusive to him. What made this a terrible situation more unique was that the mother did not abuse her other four children. Only Dave was the target of her hatred. Pelzers father, also an alcoholic, who ignored his wifes abusive tendencies, even though he secretly indicated to his son that he did not condone it, compounded the abusive behavior. The fathers silence served to validate the mothers actions. Pelzers teachers and administrators also maintained silence, thus compounding his feeling of isolation. These events occurred during the 1960s and early 1970s, so the behavior of both Pelzers father and his educators was not unusu al. Physical discipline was more accepted during that time than it is now. We will write a custom essay on Taking Care Of Our Children specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Pelzer was rescued from his mothers cruelty in 1973 by a school nurse and counselor, after dealing with her extreme abuse for almost ten years. His teachers and administrators had for years seen him attend school in rags, unwashed, often with bruises and abrasions, but as stated earlier, these were different times. When the school nurse determined she could no longer stand by and accept this abusive behavior, she saw to it that county services was contacted. Pelzer goes on to relate how his emotional damage contributed to his moving often between foster homes. He never felt adequate, and these feelings of inadequacy compounded Pelzers problems and anxieties that children in foster homes normally feel. Pelzer speaks of his first marriage ending in failure, due mostly to his lack of ability to trust and effectively communicate with his wife. His adult life has been built around raising his son in as healthy and environment as possible. He speaks repeatedly of wanting to ensure the cycl e of abuse does not continue through him. His second marriage has been a close-knit partnership, with trust and open lines of communication. The purpose in recounting so much information in Pelzers books is to remind us that we, as educators, must take our responsibilities as caretakers of children with the highest degree of importance. Even though child abuse is abhorrent, it can be stopped and, as in the case of Dave Pelzer, through discipline and hard work, the cycle of abuse can be broken. Although these abusive types of parents are thankfully in the minority, they do exist. It is therefore imperative that we maintain awareness of any unusual circumstances we may notice concerning our children. Reclusive behavior, unexplained bruises or other marks, unattended physical hygiene, or violent outbursts should be cause for concern. (Gestwicki, 435) This is not to say that we should become paranoid and report every child with a bruise as a victim of abuse. We should, however, be aware of unusual mannerisms or circumstances and act when we feel we have a right to be concerned. Documenting any suspicions and findings is essen tial. This can uncover any trends or patterns that may exist. Keep in mind that children will often cover up for and attempt to protect abusive parents. This is also a huge load for a child to bear; the responsibility of taking care of a parent who is abusive is an excessive burden. (Somers, 62) Valerie Bivens, a social worker in California, stresses that most of us are unaware of the extent of child abuse. Often instances of abuse go unreported, and the child may turn their anger against themselves or others, continuing the cycle of abuse. (Pelzer, 1995, 171) Over three million cases of child abuse were reported in 1996, and nearly one third of that number

Assessment Essays

Assessment Essays Assessment Essay Assessment Essay Essay Topic: Thirteen Reasons Why The function of assessment in Learning and Development Assessment can take part at different stages in Learning and Development and can sometimes be overlooked. ?  In this article, weâ„ ¢ll take a look at why we should be assessing our candidates and students, what benefits there are to assessment and some of the key principles of assessment. Why assess If you have just delivered a training session and you donâ„ ¢t assess, how can you be sure that any learning has taken place ?  Or if you are trying to work out a personâ„ ¢s level of skill in a particular area, how would you know whether their skill level is poor, moderate or exceptional without assessment ?  There are loads of reasons to assess such as: Determining level of knowledge understanding Ensuring that learning is taking place Checking progress Adhering to course criteria Providing a summary to learning It also never hurts if candidates and students know they are being assessed; itâ„ ¢s likely to increase their attention span and encourage them to ask about topics theyâ„ ¢re not sure of if they know that they will have to prove they have understood. For the person doing the assessing, assessment means they can be confident that the student or candidate has the required level of knowledge on a particular topic or competency for a certain task. ?  For the student or candidate, assessment usually means reassurance of their own level of knowledge / competency and usually a certificate! ?   How do we assess The first part of the assessment process is to sit down with the candidate and create a plan for their assessment. ?  The assessor has the responsibility of inducting the candidate onto the course and explaining: How they will be assessed What is going to be assessed Where they will be assessed When they will be assessed Depending on the course the assessor may help the candidate choose particular units that they are to be assessed on. The next step is to start performing the assessments and reviewing the candidateâ„ ¢s performance and knowledge. ?  One of the vital roles for the assessor is to collect and record evidence of their assessments. ?  If the assessor ever gets questioned on a decision it will be essential for them to back it up with their evidence, otherwise, itâ„ ¢s just the assessorâ„ ¢s word against the candidateâ„ ¢s! ?  This evidence must be judged against a set of criteria or standards to ensure that the candidate has the required level of knowledge or competency for the course. When a decision about a particular assessment has been reached, the candidate needs to be told about it. ?  This could be done in a yes/noâ„ ¢ or â„ ¢that was good/badâ„ ¢ way but it provides an opportunity for the assessor to give feedback and it would be a shame to waste it. ?  The purpose of giving feedback is to enhance learning. ?  It should focus on what the learner should do to improve rather than being critical and telling them what theyâ„ ¢ve done wrong. ?  It should always be given in a positive, non-judgemental manner. Once assessment decisions have been made, the assessor will be required to contribute to the quality assurance process. The function of assessment in Learning and Development Assessment can take part at different stages in Learning and Development and can sometimes be overlooked. ?  In this article, weâ„ ¢ll take a look at why we should be assessing our candidates and students, what benefits there are to assessment and some of the key principles of assessment. ?   Why assess If you have just delivered a training session and you donâ„ ¢t assess, how can you be sure that any learning has taken place ?  Or if you are trying to work out a personâ„ ¢s level of skill in a particular area, how would you know whether their skill level is poor, moderate or exceptional without assessment ?  There are loads of reasons to assess such as: Determining level of knowledge understanding Ensuring that learning is taking place Checking progress Adhering to course criteria Providing a summary to learning It also never hurts if candidates and students know they are being assessed; itâ„ ¢s likely to increase their attention span and encourage them to ask about topics theyâ„ ¢re not sure of if they know that they will have to prove they have understood. For the person doing the assessing, assessment means they can be confident that the student or candidate has the required level of knowledge on a particular topic or competency for a certain task. ?  For the student or candidate, assessment usually means reassurance of their own level of knowledge / competency and usually a certificate! ?   How do we assess The first part of the assessment process is to sit down with the candidate and create a plan for their assessment. ?  The assessor has the responsibility of inducting the candidate onto the course and explaining: How they will be assessed What is going to be assessed Where they will be assessed When they will be assessed Depending on the course the assessor may help the candidate choose particular units that they are to be assessed on. The next step is to start performing the assessments and reviewing the candidateâ„ ¢s performance and knowledge. ?  One of the vital roles for the assessor is to collect and record evidence of their assessments. ?  If the assessor ever gets questioned on a decision it will be essential for them to back it up with their evidence, otherwise, itâ„ ¢s just the assessorâ„ ¢s word against the candidateâ„ ¢s! ?  This evidence must be judged against a set of criteria or standards to ensure that the candidate has the required level of knowledge or competency for the course. When a decision about a particular assessment has been reached, the candidate needs to be told about it. ?  This could be done in a yes/noâ„ ¢ or â„ ¢that was good/badâ„ ¢ way but it provides an opportunity for the assessor to give feedback and it would be a shame to waste it. ?  The purpose of giving feedback is to enhance learning. ?  It should focus on what the learner should do to improve rather than being critical and telling them what theyâ„ ¢ve done wrong. ?  It should always be given in a positive, non-judgemental manner. Once assessment decisions have been made, the assessor will be required to contribute to the quality assurance process. The strengths and limitations of assessment methods Categories of assessment Assessments can be roughly categorised into three types which may be used at different stages of someoneâ„ ¢s training: Initial assessment Formative assessment Summative assessment The initial assessment is done before any training or other assessments take place to gauge a studentâ„ ¢s base level of knowledge or a candidateâ„ ¢s basic competency level. ?  A formative assessment is one that occurs periodically at interim points throughout the learning process. ?  A summative assessment occurs at the end of someoneâ„ ¢s training as a final assessment. ?   Methods of assessment There are loads of choices when making a decision on how to assess each with their own strengths and limitations. ?  Some types of assessment include: Question Answer sessions (both written and oral) Professional discussions Reflective accounts Role play and simulation Accredited Prior Learning Assignments Product evidence Self assessment Peer assessment Witness testimony Observations Written questioning can take the form of essays, short answer questions or multiple choice questions. ?   ?  Short and multiple choice questioning are examples of objective testing as there is only one correct answer. ?  This form of assessment is quick and easy to mark which means feedback can be given quickly to candidates. ?  Multiple choice questions can be guessed if the candidate is unsure so they might not be the best way to get an accurate measure of whether the candidate has understood something. ?  If more depth on short answer questions is required, essays can be used to assess understanding, literacy and high level comprehension although they take time for the candidates to complete and for the assessor to mark. Oral questioning can form a secondary or backup assessment method to check for comprehension. ?  They can be used to support theory while the candidate is practicing their skills or at work and they can be adapted or changed quickly depending on the situation. ?  Assessors should be careful not to used closed questions unless testing agreement. ?  Open oral questions should be used to draw out the information from the candidate. ?  An alternative to oral questioning would be a professional discussion where a candidate is asked to talk about a situation or subject regarding their work. ?  It allows for a more descriptive, structured assessment to take place. ?  An assessor should ensure they donâ„ ¢t lead the candidate in the discussion and that the learner has time to prepare for the discussion otherwise it may not flow very well. Role plays or simulations can be used to recreate a situation that a candidate may find themselves in so the assessor can determine how they would react and handle the situation. ?  A lot of candidates may resist role-play as they donâ„ ¢t want to make an idiot of themselves but the majority find it a beneficial experience although it doesnâ„ ¢t match the real thing in terms of emotions. ?   A simulation is useful when a situation could be considered dangerous or risking expensive resources. If a candidate has attended a previous training session or achieved an award or certificate in the past this can be used to support their other assessments. ?  Accredited Prior Learning assessment makes a candidate feel that any work they may have done in the past in this area wasnâ„ ¢t a waste of time. ?  This may however be time consuming for the assessor as they will need to validate the APL and not all of it may be relevant to the current criteria they are assessing. A project or assignment can give a candidate a purpose of what theyâ„ ¢re trying to learn and allows their creativity to flourish. ?  The benefit of this for both the assessor and the candidate is that it can cover a wide range of skills such as literacy, ICT skills, research skills and comprehension of the subject. ?  The assessor should ensure that if they give an assignment to a candidate they should make the learning outcomes clear to focus the candidate on what they are trying to achieve. Product evidence can be a useful assessment to support other methods. ?  Anything created or generated within the work environment can be used to backup other assessments. ?  This will only apply to candidates who have the ability to produce such evidence and the assessor should endeavour to check if it is the candidateâ„ ¢s own work or not. If an assessor gets a bit bored with doing the assessments themselves, they can get one of the candidateâ„ ¢s colleagues workmates or peersâ„ ¢ to do it for them. ?  This might help the candidate to get some informal feedback on their competencies or knowledge and perhaps some new ideas. ?  Of course, the assessor would need to verify the peer assessment as the colleague may not have the same standards or be aware of the criteria that are being assessed. ?  Another method which will allow the assessor to put their feet up and have a cup of tea is self assessment. ?  This encourages the candidate to reflect and evaluate their own competency and the candidate records this for their future reference (e.g. reviewing their own learning progress). ?  Depending on the candidate, they may find it hard to be objective about their own skills or knowledge. As long as some reliable witnesses are available, using their testimonies can be a form of assessment. ?  This can be used to summarise or validate a candidateâ„ ¢s competency perhaps at the end of a unit or complete course. ?  A witness would need to be checked for reliability by the assessor as they may be biased one way or the other to a particular candidate. Observations are an assessorâ„ ¢s primary assessment method for practical skills. ?  Itâ„ ¢s an opportunity to see the candidate in their natural work environment and see if the theory they have learnt is being applied. ?  An assessor needs to work out a way of recording these observations as they are the most likely form of evidence to be questioned by a candidate. ?  This is when the other forms of assessment can be used to support these observations. Educational assessment is the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs. Assessment can focus on the individual learner, the learning community (class, workshop, or other organized group of learners), the institution, or the educational system as a whole. According to the Academic Exchange Quarterly: Studies of a theoretical or empirical nature (including case studies, portfolio studies, exploratory, or experimental work) addressing the assessment of learner aptitude and preparation, motivation and learning styles, learning outcomes in achievement and satisfaction in different educational contexts are all welcome, as are studies addressing issues of measurable standards and benchmarks.[1] It is important to notice that the final purposes and assessment practices in education depends on the theoretical framework of the practitioners and researchers, their assumptions and beliefs about the nature of human mind, the origin of knowledge and the process of learning. Types The term assessment is generally used to refer to all activities teachers use to help students learn and to gauge student progress.[3] Though the notion of assessment is generally more complicated than the following categories suggest, assessment is often divided for the sake of convenience using the following distinctions: formative and summative objective and subjective referencing (criterion-referenced, norm-referenced, and ipsative) informal and formal. Formative and summative Assessment is often divided into formative and summative categories for the purpose of considering different objectives for assessment practices. Summative assessment Summative assessment is generally carried out at the end of a course or project. In an educational setting, summative assessments are typically used to assign students a course grade. Summative assessments are evaluative. Formative assessment Formative assessment is generally carried out throughout a course or project. Formative assessment, also referred to as educative assessment, is used to aid learning. In an educational setting, formative assessment might be a teacher (or peer) or the learner, providing feedback on a students work, and would not necessarily be used for grading purposes. Formative assessments are diagnostic. Educational researcher Robert Stake explains the difference between formative and summative assessment with the following analogy: When the cook tastes the soup, thats formative. When the guests taste the soup, thats summative.[4] Summative and formative assessment are often referred to in a learning context as assessment of learning and assessment for learning respectively. Assessment of learning is generally summative in nature and intended to measure learning outcomes and report those outcomes to students, parents, and administrators. Assessment of learning generally occurs at the conclusion of a class, course, semester, or academic year. Assessment for learning is generally formative in nature and is used by teachers to consider approaches to teaching and next steps for individual learners and the class.[5] A common form of formative assessment is diagnostic assessment. Diagnostic assessment measures a students current knowledge and skills for the purpose of identifying a suitable program of learning. Self-assessment is a form of diagnostic assessment which involves students assessing themselves. Forward-looking assessment asks those being assessed to consider themselves in hypothetical future situations.[6] Performance-based assessment is similar to summative assessment, as it focuses on achievement. It is often aligned with the standards-based education reform and outcomes-based education movement. Though ideally they are significantly different from a traditional multiple choice test, they are most commonly associated with standards-based assessment which use free-form responses to standard questions scored by human scorers on a standards-based scale, meeting, falling below, or exceeding a performance standard rather than being ranked on a curve. A well-defined task is identified and students are asked to create, produce, or do something, often in settings that involve real-world application of knowledge and skills. Proficiency is demonstrated by providing an extended response. Performance formats are further differentiated into products and performances. The performance may result in a product, such as a painting, portfolio, paper, or exhibition, or it may consist of a performance, s uch as a speech, athletic skill, musical recital, or reading. Objective and subjective Assessment (either summative or formative) is often categorized as either objective or subjective. Objective assessment is a form of questioning which has a single correct answer. Subjective assessment is a form of questioning which may have more than one correct answer (or more than one way of expressing the correct answer). There are various types of objective and subjective questions. Objective question types include true/false answers, multiple choice, multiple-response and matching questions. Subjective questions include extended-response questions and essays. Objective assessment is well suited to the increasingly popular computerized or online assessment format. Some have argued that the distinction between objective and subjective assessments is neither useful nor accurate because, in reality, there is no such thing as objective assessment. In fact, all assessments are created with inherent biases built into decisions about relevant subject matter and content, as well as cultural (class, ethnic, and gender) biases.[7] Basis of comparison Test results can be compared against an established criterion, or against the performance of other students, or against previous performance: Criterion-referenced assessment, typically using a criterion-referenced test, as the name implies, occurs when candidates are measured against defined (and objective) criteria. Criterion-referenced assessment is often, but not always, used to establish a persons competence (whether s/he can do something). The best known example of criterion-referenced assessment is the driving test, when learner drivers are measured against a range of explicit criteria (such as Not endangering other road users). Norm-referenced assessment (colloquially known as grading on the curve), typically using a norm-referenced test, is not measured against defined criteria. This type of assessment is relative to the student body undertaking the assessment. It is effectively a way of comparing students. The IQ test is the best known example of norm-referenced assessment. Many entrance tests (to prestigious schools or universities) are norm-referenced, permitting a fixed proportion of students to pass (passing in this context means being accepted into the school or university rather than an explicit level of ability). This means that standards may vary from year to year, depending on the quality of the cohort; criterion-referenced assessment does not vary from year to year (unless the criteria change).[8] Ipsative assessment is self comparison either in the same domain over time, or comparative to other domains within the same student. Informal and formal Assessment can be either formal or informal. Formal assessment usually implies a written document, such as a test, quiz, or paper. A formal assessment is given a numerical score or grade based on student performance, whereas an informal assessment does not contribute to a students final grade such as this copy and pasted discussion question. An informal assessment usually occurs in a more casual manner and may include observation, inventories, checklists, rating scales, rubrics, performance and portfolio assessments, participation, peer and self evaluation, and discussion.[9] Internal and external Internal assessment is set and marked by the school (i.e. teachers). Students get the mark and feedback regarding the assessment. External assessment is set by the governing body, and is marked by non-biased personnel. Some external assessments give much more limited feedback in their marking. However, in tests such as Australias NAPLAN, the criterion addressed by students is given detailed feedback in order for their teachers to address and compare the students learning achievements and also to plan for the future. Standards of quality In general, high-quality assessments are considered those with a high level of reliability and validity. Approaches to reliability and validity vary, however. Reliability Reliability relates to the consistency of an assessment. A reliable assessment is one which consistently achieves the same results with the same (or similar) cohort of students. Various factors affect reliability†including ambiguous questions, too many options within a question paper, vague marking instructions and poorly trained markers. Traditionally, the reliability of an assessment is based on the following: Temporal stability: Performance on a test is comparable on two or more separate occasions. Form equivalence: Performance among examinees is equivalent on different forms of a test based on the same content. Internal consistency: Responses on a test are consistent across questions. For example: In a survey that asks respondents to rate attitudes toward technology, consistency would be expected in responses to the following questions: I feel very negative about computers in general. I enjoy using computers.[10] Reliability can also be expressed in mathematical terms as: Rx = VT/Vx where Rx is the reliability in the observed (test) score, X; Vt and Vx are the variability in trueâ„ ¢ (i.e., candidateâ„ ¢s innate performance) and measured test scores respectively. The Rx can range from 0 (completely unreliable), to 1 (completely reliable). An Rx of 1 is rarely achieved, and an Rx of 0.8 is generally considered reliable. [11] Validity A valid assessment is one which measures what it is intended to measure. For example, it would not be valid to assess driving skills through a written test alone. A more valid way of assessing driving skills would be through a combination of tests that help determine what a driver knows, such as through a written test of driving knowledge, and what a driver is able to do, such as through a performance assessment of actual driving. Teachers frequently complain that some examinations do not properly assess the syllabus upon which the examination is based; they are, effectively, questioning the validity of the exam Validity of an assessment is generally gauged through examination of evidence in the following categories: Content â€Å" Does the content of the test measure stated objectives Criterion â€Å" Do scores correlate to an outside reference (ex: Do high scores on a 4th grade reading test accurately predict reading skill in future grades) Construct â€Å" Does the assessment correspond to other significant variables (ex: Do ESL students consistently perform differently on a writing exam than native English speakers)[12] Face â€Å" Does the item or theory make sense, and is it seemingly correct to the expert reader[13] A good assessment has both validity and reliability, plus the other quality attributes noted above for a specific context and purpose. In practice, an assessment is rarely totally valid or totally reliable. A ruler which is marked wrong will always give the same (wrong) measurements. It is very reliable, but not very valid. Asking random individuals to tell the time without looking at a clock or watch is sometimes used as an example of an assessment which is valid, but not reliable. The answers will vary between individuals, but the average answer is probably close to the actual time. In many fields, such as medical research, educational testing, and psychology, there will often be a trade-off between reliability and validity. A history test written for high validity will have many essay and fill-in-the-blank questions. It will be a good measure of mastery of the subject, but difficult to score completely accurately. A history test written for high reliability will be entirely multip le choice. It isnt as good at measuring knowledge of history, but can easily be scored with great precision. We may generalize from this. The more reliable our estimate is of what we purport to measure, the less certain we are that we are actually measuring that aspect of attainment. It is also important to note that there are at least thirteen sources of invalidity, which can be estimated for individual students in test situations. They never are. Perhaps this is because their social purpose demands the absence of any error, and validity errors are usually so high that they would destabilize the whole assessment industry. It is well to distinguish between subject-matter validity and predictive validity. The former, used widely in education, predicts the score a student would get on a similar test but with different questions. The latter, used widely in the workplace, predicts performance. Thus, a subject-matter-valid test of knowledge of driving rules is appropriate while a predictively-valid test would assess whether the potential driver could follow those rules. Testing standards In the field of psychometrics, the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing[14] place standards about validity and reliability, along with errors of measurement and related considerations under the general topic of test construction, evaluation and documentation. The second major topic covers standards related to fairness in testing, including fairness in testing and test use, the rights and responsibilities of test takers, testing individuals of diverse linguistic backgrounds, and testing individuals with disabilities. The third and final major topic covers standards related to testing applications, including the responsibilities of test users, psychological testing and assessment, educational testing and assessment, testing in employment and credentialing, plus testing in program evaluation and public policy. Evaluation standards In the field of evaluation, and in particular educational evaluation, the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation[15] has published three sets of standards for evaluations. The Personnel Evaluation Standards[16] was published in 1988, The Program Evaluation Standards (2nd edition)[17] was published in 1994, and The Student Evaluation Standards[18] was published in 2003. Each publication presents and elaborates a set of standards for use in a variety of educational settings. The standards provide guidelines for designing, implementing, assessing and improving the identified form of evaluation. Each of the standards has been placed in one of four fundamental categories to promote educational evaluations that are proper, useful, feasible, and accurate. In these sets of standards, validity and reliability considerations are covered under the accuracy topic. For example, the student accuracy standards help ensure that student evaluations will provide sound, accurate, and credible information about student learning and performance. In classrooms where assessment for learning is practiced, students know at the outset of a unit of study what they are expected to learn. At the beginning of the unit, the teacher will work with the student to understand what she or he already knows about the topic as well as to identify any gaps or misconceptions (initial/diagnostic assessment). As the unit progresses, the teacher and student work together to assess the studentâ„ ¢s knowledge, what she or he needs to learn to improve and extend this knowledge, and how the student can best get to that point (formative assessment). Assessment for learning occurs at all stages of the learning process. Researchers whose work has informed much of this assessment reform include Ken Oâ„ ¢Connor, Grant Wiggins[1], Jay McTighe[2], Richard Stiggins[3], Paul Black and Dylan Wiliam, Thomas Guskey, Damian Cooper[4] and Ronan Howe. Historical Perspective In past decades, teachers would design a unit of study that would typically include objectives, teaching strategies, and resources. An evaluation component†the test or examination†may or may not have been included as part of this design (Cooper, 2006). The studentâ„ ¢s mark on this test or exam was taken as the indicator of his or her understanding of the topic. Definitions There are a number of assessment terms that will appear in any discussion of assessment. Listed below are common interpretations of some of these terms: Assessment A working definition of Assessment for learning from a widely cited article contends: the term assessmentâ„ ¢ refers to all those activities undertaken by teachers, and by their students in assessing themselves, which provide information to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged.[1] Since this seminal article, educators have differentiated assessment according to its purpose: Assessment for learning comprises two phases†initial or diagnostic assessment and formative assessment assessment can be based on a variety of information sources (e.g., portfolios, works in progress, teacher observation, conversation) verbal or written feedback to the student is primarily descriptive and emphasizes strengths, identifies challenges, and points to next steps as teachers check on understanding they adjust their instruction to keep students on track no grades or scores are given record-keeping is primarily anecdotal and descriptive occurs throughout the learning process, from the outset of the course of study to the time of summative assessment Assessment as learning begins as students become aware of the goals of instruction and the criteria for performance involves goal-setting, monitoring progress, and reflecting on results implies student ownership and responsibility for moving his or her thinking forward (metacognition) occurs throughout the learning process Assessment of learning assessment that is accompanied by a number or letter grade (summative) compares one studentâ„ ¢s achievement with standards results can be communicated to the student and parents occurs at the end of the learning unit Evaluation judgment made on the basis of a studentâ„ ¢s performance Diagnostic assessment (now referred to more often as pre-assessment) assessment made to determine what a student does and does not know about a topic assessment made to determine a students learning style or preferences used to determine how well a student can perform a certain set of skills related to a particular subject or group of subjects occurs at the beginning of a unit of study used to inform instruction:makes up the initial phase of assessment for learning Formative assessment assessment made to determine a studentâ„ ¢s knowledge and skills, including learning gaps as they progress through a unit of study used to inform instruction and guide learning occurs during the course of a unit of study makes up the subsequent phase of assessment for learning Summative assessment assessment that is made at the end of a unit of study to determine the level of understanding the student has achieved includes a mark or grade against an expected standard Principles of Assessment for Learning Among the most comprehensive listing of principles of assessment for learning are those written by the QCA (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority)[5]. The authority, which is sponsored by Englandâ„ ¢s Department for Children, Schools and Families, is responsible for national curriculum, assessment, and examinations. Their principal focus on crucial aspects of assessment for learning, including how such assessment should be seen as central to classroom practice, and that all teachers should regard assessment for learning as a key professional skill. The UK Assessment Reform Group (1999) identifies The big 5 principles of assessment for learning 1. The provision of effective feedback to students. 2. The active involvement of students in their own learning. 3. Adjusting teaching to take account of the results of assessment. 4. Recognition of the profound influence assessment has on the motivation and self esteem of pupils, both of which are critical influences on learning. 5. The need for students to be able to assess themselves and understand how to improve. Feedback The purpose of an Assessment for Learning (AFL) task is to provide feedback to both the teacher and learner regarding the learners progress towards achieving the learning objective(s). This feedback should be used by the teacher to revise and develop further instruction. An effective AFL method is to use a performance task coupled with a rubric. This type of assessment is fundamental in illustrating how and why such principles need to be adhered to.

Construction Safety Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Construction Safety - Assignment Example The design problems and stress overloading that resulted into the failure of the bridge were part of the management faults since through proper design; the situation could have been rectified. The collapse could have also been caused by faults during construction as a result of workers overlooking some important issues regarding to construction safety. There were some concerns on the safety of the bridge before the project started. The company had a lot of financial constraints before the project started. Kranakis (2004) argues that the government was not willing to part with large sums of money at that time and hence the safety issues became overlooked due to an exorbitant budget. The company however went ahead with the construction despite its financial conditions that could not have allowed the construction of the project. These were all calculated human errors that led to the collapse of the final project. According to the Cleveland State University (n,d), system theory is aimed at controlling and preventing the hazards. This is done through identifying the interactions between components rather than the failures of the components which include the non technical elements of the system. In the case of the Quebec bridge collapse the elements making up the bridge were not in harmony to create safety. The environmental conditions might have affected the bridge leading to swinging beyond the stress limits provided. This might have been caused by poor welding or jointing between the various parts making the bridge. The bridge design might not have been designed to carry the total weight of the bridge or the supporting beams used to strengthen and support the bridge may have failed due to unforeseen circumstances. It could also have happened that part of the ground that the bridge was elected yielded due to weight leading to the collapse. Kranakis (2004) explains that the design drawings and the plans

Self - Directed Learning Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Self - Directed Learning - Assignment Example I get along well with people and make friends quickly where ever I go. It is very good to know that there many different ways for a person to be intelligent, and I would like to honor these strengths about myself and use them to my advantage in school The ideal self-directed learner has a few qualities that I am not very good at yet. Motivating myself to get work done is sometimes hard because I have many things going on in my life. Setting priorities is very important to succeeding in school and getting my work done on time should be my priority. I already take the lead in many areas of my life and I am getting better at assessing my progress in things, although I want to be less hard on myself and not get caught up in always having to do things exactly right. Just getting the work done is an accomplishment if I do a good job. It doesn’t have to be perfect. Taking control of my own learning is made much easier when the teacher lets me know in advance what work needs to be done and when the work is due. It is actually helpful to me to have the teacher expect everyone in the class to get work done on time and not give too many breaks on due dates unless it is really needed. Teachers who give a lot of feedback on work, whether the answers are right or wrong, also help me to learn what I need to do differently or encourage about myself. On the BITES list, I have pretty good brains, I’m interested in my schoolwork and in succeeding, I have to prioritize my time better, and I have to put in a lot of effort in everything I do. The Spendables category is a little harder for me to define because I know I have to trade doing fun things in order to get my school work finished. I will definitely need to ask for help when I need it instead of thinking I can solve all problems on my own. I plan to ask for a lot of help so I can succeed in my classes and get good

Dworkin and legal positivists seek to provide guidelines for impartial Essay

Dworkin and legal positivists seek to provide guidelines for impartial judicial decision making, but do so in different ways and with different results. Discu - Essay Example non-Dworkian sense implies that the legal validity of a given norm, and hence whether it forms part of the law of that system, depends on its sources, not its merits. This paper discusses the jurisprudential basis of impartiality in judicial decision-making based on the theory of Dworkin and juxtaposing the same with another contemporaneous legal positivist, Professor H.L.A Hart. Dworkin, in his paper ‘The Model of Rules’, identifies and attributes to Hart a four-fold doctrine:2 (1) that law consists of ‘rules’ (understood as legal standards that differ from what Dworkin calls ‘principles’); (2) that legal rules are identified via a ‘rule of recognition’; (3) that where a rule does not control a case, judges have discretion; and (4) that in those cases where judges have discretion, neither party has a pre-existing legal right to prevail. Dworkin rejects the merit of all these four doctrines, but for the purposes of the present essay we shall limit our discussion to the last two of these four doctrines identified by Dworkin. The purpose of this essay in so far as it attempts to juxtapose Dworkin’s theory with Hart’s, shall be better served if prefaced by a brief survey of how Hart perceived the impact of judicial discretion on law-making. The variance in the two approach is best illustrated by taking as an example the ‘hard cases’ to be decided by a court of law- that is, cases which have a uniquely singular problem which has not be covered by the text of the relevant statute or which it is abundantly clear has never come within the contemplation of the legislature. Hart has consistently taken the view that, as a conceptual matter, what constitutes a question of law as ‘hard’ is that the pre-existing law is substantively indeterminate with respect to that question and is insufficient to determine a uniquely correct answer.3 Hard cases, therefore, arise because there is a gap or vacuum in the coverage of pre-existing law. Since, in such

Scenario Of Smoking And Cigarettes Health And Social Care Essay

Scenario Of Smoking And Cigarettes Health And Social Care Essay According to Mackay and Eriksen (2002), since early 20th century, when cigarette was first manufactured, there has been a steady increase in the number of cigarette consumers throughout the whole world. Although there are ups and downs in the graph of cigarette consumption level in certain countries, the number of people who smoke around the world continues to rise and more cigarettes are being consumed every day. As the human race populations keep on expanding and become larger, so will the number of smokers in the world. It is expected that at least 2 billion people will live in this planet smoking cigarette by year 2030. The number of people who smokes will continue to increase, even as the prevalence rates drop. Female smokers are growing in numbers, particularly in developing countries, which will fill the gap of decrease in the prevalence rates among male smokers Goddard (2008), in another study found out that from 1974 until 1982, the popularity of smoking in Great Britain had fallen significantly, from 45% to 35%. This decrease however, began to slow down, where for every two years only approximately one percentage of the rate fell down until 1994 to 27%. The general decrease in smoking popularity mentioned above was caused by decline of both light smokers and heavy smokers. Here, light smokers are identified as people who smoke less than 20 cigarettes per day whereas heavy smokers are people who smoke more than 20 cigarettes per day. There has been a decrease on the number of adult smokers who consume average 20 or more cigarettes per day from 1974 to 2006 with the percentage of 26% and 8% respectively. Over the same period, the female smokers also showed a decline in number from 13% to 5%. Meanwhile, in Mexico, a decrease in smoking trends occurred at the offset of 20th century especially on exposure of smoking, daily smoking consumption as well as smoking frequency among the society, especially among men. In addition, smoking popularity and smoking frequency has shown a significant decline particularly among adult smokers in both genders compared to the younger smokers. Nonetheless, men are facing a worse smoking situation compared to women in both mentioned areas. However, during year 2002, it was found out that daily female smokers smoked more cigarettes than men (Franco-Marina, 2007). Surprisingly, in worldwide, nearly one billion men, consists about 35% in developed countries and another 50% in developing countries, are smokers. The rate of male smoking across the world had reached its peak but is slowly declining. Nevertheless, there declining rate is very slow compared to the current effects it has on human. Although more and more researches had been conducted to reveal the negative impacts of smoking, currently the decrease has been slow. In overall, the ones who give up the smoking habit come from those who are educated and so smoking becomes more popular among poorer and less educated man. (Mackay and Eriksen, 2002). Concern over health issues related to tobacco usage is not a new issue. According to Shafey (2003), not only that health concern is increasing, presently the dominance of smoking also began shifting to low-income and middle-income countries especially in many Asian countries (as cited in Parkinson et al., 2009). This is true especially when tobacco usage among human has become a global outbreak. Cigarettes are manufactured with the amount of five and a half trillion for every one year. This is enough to feed everyone on earth about approximately 1,000 cigarettes for each one of them. The largest tobacco consumers identified are Asia, Australia and the Far East with consumption of 2,715 billion cigarettes, before the Americas with 745 billion cigarettes, Eastern Europe and Former Soviet Economies with 631 billion cigarretes and Western Europe with 606 billion cigarettes (Mackay and Eriksen, 2002). Situation in Malaysia however, is slightly different. According to National Health Morbidity Survey (1986 and 1996), the prevalence of smoking among Malaysian adults has increased from 39% to 49% (as cited in Shahidan et al., 2002). National Health and Morbidity Survey (1996) also states the occurrence of tobacco consumption is roughly 24.8% and among all men, 49.2% of them are smokers, whereas for women only 3.5% of them are smoke (as cited in Parkinson et al., 2009). Meanwhile according to statistic in PROSTAR (2007), in 2000 there are 3.6 million smokers in Malaysia and by 2025, it is speculated that the total will increase to 4.6 million (as cited in Kim et al., 2009). Even though currently no clear evidence exists, some survey had identified that smoking among teenagers is increasing nowadays. (Parkinson et al., 2009). However, according to Thambypillai (1985); Shamsuddin Haris (2000); Naing et al. (2004) and Ahmad et al. (1997), there are no significant changes of trends for t eenage smoking. Several surveys done in different regions found out that smoking habit among male teenagers was between 17% to 36% meanwhile for female it was between 1% to 5% (as cited in Lim et al., 2006). 2.1 Reasons for Smoking According to Baker et al. (2002), smokers give almost the same justifications or rationales for smoking. Apparently, majority of them regard smoking activity as a form of relaxation and a way to cope with stress. It is also an addictive habit which presents smokers with good feelings and lessens the bad feelings through the effects of nicotine. In a way smokers consider cigarette as a helpful tool to them although they are aware of its negative effects. This is consistent with the research done by KaÃ…Å ¸ikà §i et al. (2008) in which they stated that smoking is one way for smokers to have pleasure while at the same time relaxing themselves or easing their stress. Moreover, British American Tobacco Malaysia (2010) reported that an important aspect experienced by smokers comes from the pharmacological effect of nicotine a mild stimulant effect not unlike that of caffeine, and a mild relaxing effect. Baker et al. (2002) also stated that serious cigarette smokers are addicted to to bacco, which lead them to smoke heavily whereas light smokers smoke more for social purpose. On the other hand, according to Jarvis (2004), during early adolescent is a period where people like to experiment with smoking due to psychosocial reason. For people who just started smoking, a cigarette is a symbolic way of saying that they are no longer their mothers child and a way of showing that they are mature. Children who have tendency to smoke usually come from environment that promotes smoking culture. Such environment includes situation where family members and peers are smokers or where smoking is considered common in school and in society. They also have tendency to smoke due to their own internal or external conditions such having low self esteem, overweight, psychologically impaired, or having poor achievement at school. Moreover, it is believed that there is a distinguishable pattern among smokers from different gender group. Parkinson et al. (2009), conform to this idea in which the findings of his study revealed that males tend to believe that smoking makes people look more attractive compared to women and see smoking as a mark of being modern. Furthermore, both genders also similarly tend to believe that by smoking they can control their body weight. This finding however contradicts with Western studies by Cavallo (2006), where the data showed that male teenagers do not worry about their weight as much as female teenagers and so are less likely smoke in order to control weight than females (as cited in Parkinson et al., 2009). 2.2 Review of Related Studies The smoking rate for university students is rising gradually in Turkey as well as the world (KaÃ…Å ¸ikà §i et al., 2008). A research by Cooper et al. (2004) said that there is an increase for the rate of smoking in Turkey in which 64% of the increase is among the men and 23% of it is women. Abolfutuoh et al. (1998) states 40% of the students in Education Council are heavy smokers and only 23% of the Medicine Council students smoke. Meanwhile, Kader and Alsadi (2008) found that most of the students are light smokers (50.6%). They also said that students in the medical school tend to smoke less than their friends in other faculties. Surprisingly, a study by Kypri and Baxter (2004) said that the smoking pattern is higher among Maori women than men, in which the women tend to smoke daily. Sharker (2005) in his study about knowledge, attitude and practice on smoking among students and staff in Universiti Putra Malaysia states that 13.7% from respondents who smoke comes from students while 9.9% was comes from the staff. He also found that Indians and Malays were among the highest percentage due to ethnic groups which comprises of 12.7% and 11.6% respectively; meanwhile Hindus and Muslim were among the highest percentage due to religious group which equal to 13% and 11.9% respectively. According to Azlan (2006) in his study on smoking among secondary school students in Kuantan, the smoking percentage was 43%; with 63.5% comes from males and 17.5% comes female. This study is quite similar to the study done by Rapeah et al. (2008) whereby almost half of the respondents in her study on factors influencing smoking behaviours among male adolescents in Kuantan were smokers (45.8%) and Malays were contribute up to 53.1%. A cross-sectional study of 16-year old secondary school students in Kota Tinggi district reported that 29.7% from the respondents were found to be smoking and the highest percentage of male smokers comes from FELDA (Federal Land Development Authority) areas which comprises of more than 50% (Lim et al., 2006). Meanwhile, the study done by Shahidan et al. (2002) on smoking habits among secondary school students in Kedah reported that the average age for smoking and non-smoking groups were 16 years old the research has reveal that the age of onset smoking among respondents began as early as 13 years old. According to KaÃ…Å ¸ikà §i et al. (2008), 40.2% of the final grade students at the AtatÃ…Â ©rk University smoked. 56.5% from that said that they smoke to release tense while 24.6% smoke for pleasure. Abolfutuoh et al. (1998) states that curiosity was the main reason for initiation of smoking among students in medical students at the University College of Medicine and students of the College of Education. There are findings found in a research by Kader and Alsadi (2008) that say the students smoke because it helps them to concentrate as well as calm them down. They also said that students smoke because they also want to cope with stress and social anxieties. Kypri and Baxter (2004) also stated that students smoke because it helps them to relax. According to Shahidan et al. (2002), matured, attractive and classy are among the reasons students start smoking with percentage of 70.0%, 62.2% and 54.0% respectively. Meanwhile, Sharker (2005) found that the main reason for the onset of smoking among students and staff in Universiti Putra Malaysia was just for fun and it was comprises of 54.2%. In addition, Azlan (2006) revealed that the main reason for students to smoke is because of the influences of friends. Rapeah et al. (2008) states that wanted to try received the highest frequency among reasons for smoking with percentage of 68.9% and peer influence follows behind with percentage of 56.1%. Nonetheless, nearly 70% of the respondents disagrees that trendy is the reason for initiating smoking. There are also findings found in a research by Khairani et al. (2007) that say curiosity and peer pressure are the most common reasons for starting smoking with percentage of 69.3% and 51% respectively. On the other hand, the most frequent reason for continuing smoking reported was stress with percentage of 70% followed by addiction with percentage of 49%. KaÃ…Å ¸ikà §i et al. (2008) stated that one of the factors that encourage the students to smoke is the parents of the students. Most of the students who smoke have fathers and brothers who smoke as well. Friends are also one of the factors that lead to smoking habit among the students. These findings are quite similar with the study by Shahidan et al. (2002) which conducted in Kedah. Their research stated that family members and peers who smoke have great influence to students to start smoking. There is twice higher risk for students who come from smoking family to smoke than those who are not. In addition, there are nearly six times higher risks of smoking for student who have peers who are smokers than those who do not have peers who smoke. Same goes to the study by Khairani et al. (2007), which found out significant connection between smoking among family members and teenager smoking. Sharker (2005) reported that the popularity of smoking was linked with race, family, age, religious, economic status as well as peers smoking habits. These findings are consistent with the study done by Azlan (2006) on the prevalence of smoking among secondary school students and its associated factors in the district of Kuantan. Meanwhile, according to Lim et al. (2006), smoking is associated with factors such as having low academic achievement as well as having a lot of close friends and siblings who smoke. Another finding also discovers that respondents who smoke are linked with factors which are attitude towards smoking, type of class stream and having smoking friends (Rapeah et al., 2008). In addition, among the main factors for students to start smoking are showing off, curiosity and pressure from peers (Abolfutuoh et al., 1998).

The Development Of Leadership Quality Education Essay

â€Å" ‘Leaders are born ‘ and ‘leadership accomplishments can be developed ‘ represent two basically different positions towards the development of leading quality. Which position would you back up, and what deductions may this hold for direction development in organisations? †IntroductionAre leaders born or made? This inquiry has grabbed a batch of attending of many writers in the past century. The leading theories and the ways to analyze leading have been evolved over clip. The subject of leading has been of involvement to many research workers throughout the twentieth century but non in the 19th. As Frank Heller ( 1997, p.340 ) notes that in 1896, the US Library of Congress had non one book on the topic of leading. Alan Bryman, one of the most well-thought-of and cited British research worker, has written a reappraisal chapter ‘Leadership in Organizations ‘ in 1990s. Bryman traces the displacements in the definition of leading from Trait epochs to the New Leadership epoch ( Bryman, 1996 ) . David Day argues that leaders can be developed. He carried out a thorough scrutiny of leading development from three interconnected positions, of theory, pattern and research ( Day, D. V, 2001 ) . One of his wide findings was that the pattern of leading development offered many processs for executing programmes for accomplishing coveted ends of leading development. However, he was able to happen small hallmark of the connexions between the patterns and those ends. Day gives a clear image of one of the ways in which leading research is chiefly complex to analyze and implement. He foremost differentiates between leader development and leading development. Leader development focuses on the person, and historically was the more of import one. Whereas, leading development shows a broader image of the overall kineticss of the organisations within which leaders and others perform their work ( Rickards and Clark, 2006 ) . In the undermentioned pages, we will be looking at different theories that either supports the ‘Born ‘ or ‘Made ‘ side of leading, back up the impression that leaders can be developed and speak about how can they be developed and what impact does it hold on the direction and leading development in an organisation.Leaderships, Born or Made?Narratives from all over the universe have promoted the fact of natural leaders, who succeeded without any formal preparation or whatsoever. Yet, leading preparation and development has been a turning field of survey. The taken-for-granted belief in the natural born leader was noted in a address on leading made by the Bishop of Durham, Dr Herbert H. Hensley at St Andrews University, Scotland in 1930s, in which he noted that: â€Å" It is a fact that some work forces possess an inbred high quality, which gives them a ruling influence over their coevalss, and marks them out unmistakeably for leading. . . [ in many walks of life ] there are those who with an assured and undisputed rubric, take the prima topographic point, and determine the general behavior † ( Quoted in Adair J. , 1989 ) We will now be looking at two proposals by Alan Bryman and David Day. Bryman takes us on a journey through the development of leading theories in the pre-modern times to the rise of trait theory, and an epoch where trait theories became challenges by more behaviourally oriented thoughts. Bryman portrays all these theories as a portion of the â€Å" old leading † theoretical account and contrasts them with an of import theoretical account of new leading. We will now understand how trait theories became cardinal, underpinning beliefs about natural Born leaders followed by the diminution in the sensed significance of trait theories added to the ultimate rise of involvement in leading developmental possibilities ( Rickards and Clark, 2006 ) . An early definition which was accepted for three decennaries was by Stogdill in his enchiridion which says â€Å" Leadership may be considered as the procedure ( act ) of act uponing the activities of a group in attempts towards end scene and end accomplishment † ( Stogdill, 1950 ) . Bryman argues that that definition presented by Stogdill indicates how leading was supposed to run through a leader carrying the behavior of the followings. However, he notes that this definition is deficient for distinguishing between leading and direction. He so compares this to a new leading definition which says â€Å" The leader gives a sense of way and aim through the articulation of a compelling world-view [ the specifying feature of which is ] the active publicity of values which provide shared significances about the nature of organisations † ( Bryman, 1996 ) . Bryman takes a historiographer ‘s attack and suggests typical epochs in leading theory and research. He notes that the epochs are suggestions of periods within which a peculiar kind of theory had domination over the other. He categorises them into 4 epochs, the trait epoch, manner epoch, eventuality epoch and the new leading epoch. The trait epoch was from 1880s to 1940s. It emphasised on the indispensable features of a leader which were presumed to be congenital traits like physical traits, abilities like intelligence, communicating etc and personality features like assurance, extroversion etc. The manner epoch was from 1940s to 1960s. It refocused on what the leaders did instead than their personal traits. The most dominant organisational surveies such as the Ohio State probes set a manner for analyzing the studies of followings which was even followed in the eventuality epoch. Research workers attempted to distill manners to a few overarching variables, frequently bring forthing planar theoretical accounts of people oriented and undertaking oriented. The eventuality epoch, right after the manner epoch, that was from late sixtiess to early 1980s. It can be seen as a more complex manner as it incorporates the situational variable. A contingent variable is one whose significance in a theory is dependent on fortunes. A people oriented manner may non be appropriate is the degree of acquisition and instruction of the followings is low. Harmonizing to Bryman, the eventuality theory introduced the ‘it all depends ‘ thought. He identified the theoretical account developed by Fred Fiedler and colleagues as the best known of the eventuality approaches. This theory suggests that the nature of the leader to favor undertaking or relationships may be assessed by the leaders position of his colleagues and specifically for the least preferable colleague ( LPC ) . If a leader sees good qualities in his colleagues, he tends to be more relationship oriented, if non so undertaking oriented. The new leading epoch took up in the 1980s and to day of the month. The typical characteristics are a displacement from the trait, manner and eventuality theoretical accounts through focal point on leading as a socially constructed procedure. The 2nd characteristic was a procedure of transformational alteration. This was a clear limit from the two old epochs of eventuality and manner, although the birth of trait theory could besides be considered as grounded in leader traits linked with major transmutations ( Rickards and Clark, 2006 ) . In 2001, David Day carried out a elaborate review of leading development from three interconnected positions, of theory, pattern and research. One of his wide findings was that the pattern of leading development can give us many ways for carry oning plans for carry throughing wanted ends of leading development. Day illustrates that leading research is reasonably complex to analyze and put to death. He draws a differentiation between leader development and leading development. Leader development focuses on the person, and historically was the more of import one. Whereas, leading development shows a broader image of the overall kineticss of the organisations within which leaders and others perform their work ( Rickards and Clark, 2006 ) . Harmonizing to Day, leading development holds near the single focal point instead than replace it. He criticizes on the weak nexus between theory and pattern and developed six of the most influential techniques for leading development, viz. 360-degree feedback, coaching, mentoring, networking, occupation assignments and actions ( Day, D. V, 2001 ) . This we will discourse in item towards the terminal of this paper. Over the old ages, leading has been studied loosely in a assortment of contexts and theoretical foundations. In some instances, leading has been illustrated as a procedure, but most theories and research on leading expression at a individual to derive understanding ( Bernard, 1926 ; Blake, Shepard and Mouton, 1964 ; Drath and Palus, 1994 ; Fiedler, 1967 ; and House and Mitchell, 1974 ) . Leadership is in general defined by the traits, qualities, and behaviours of a leader. ( Stogdill, 1974 ) , identified several different classs that arrests the kernel of the survey of leading in the 20th century. The first motion dealt with the properties of great leaders. Leadership was explained by the internal qualities with which a individual is born ( Bernard, 1926 ) . The impression was that if the traits that distinguished leaders from followings could be identified, successful leaders could be rapidly evaluated and put into places of leading. Personality, physical, and mental individualisms were examined. This research was based on the thought that leaders were born and non made, and the key to success was merely in acknowledging those people who were born to be great leaders. Despite the fact that much research was done to place the traits, no clear response was found with respect to what traits every clip were associated with great leading. One imperfectness with this line of idea was in ignoring the situational and environmental factors that play a function in a leader ‘s degree of effectivity ( Horner M. , 1997 ) . A 2nd major thrust looked at leader behaviours in an attempt to reason what successful leaders do, non how they look to others ( Halpin and Winer, 1957 ; Hemphill and Coons, 1957 ) . These surveies began to look at leaders in the model of the organisation, placing the behaviours leaders ‘ exhibit that increases the efficiency of the company. A 3rd attack in response to the inquiry about the best manner to take dealt with the dealingss between the leader ‘s traits, the leader ‘s behaviours, and the state of affairs in which the leader exists. These eventuality theories make the guess that the effects of one variable on leading are contingent on others. Yet another eventuality theory trades with an scrutiny of the people who are led by leaders. The significance of the followings in leading materialized ( House and Mitchell, 1974 ) , and leading was seen as a communicating between the ends of the follo wings and the leader. The path-goal theory proposes that leaders are chiefly responsible for assisting followings build up behaviours that will enable them to achieve their ends or preferred results. Extra leading theories have come frontward over the past 10 to fifteen old ages. This is symbolized by the comparing of transactional and transformational leading. Transactional leading stems from more constituted positions of workers and organisations, and it involves the place power of the leader to utilize followings for undertaking completion ( Burns, 1978 ) . Transformational leading, nevertheless, looks on for ways to assist actuate followings by carry throughing higher-order demands and more to the full appealing them in the procedure of the work ( Bass, 1985 ) . Transformational leaders can get down and cover with alteration, and they can craft something new out of the old. In this manner, these leaders separately evolve while besides assisting their followings and organisations evolve. They construct strong associations with others while back uping and heartening each person ‘s development. Manz and Sims besides offer a revised, integrative point of position on leading . Using the term â€Å" Super Leadership, † they confront the traditional paradigm of leading as one individual making something to other people ( Manz and Sims, 1991 ) . Alternatively, they propose that another theoretical account exists for leading today: â€Å" the most appropriate leader is one who can take others to take themselves † ( p. 18 ) . Harmonizing to this position, leading exists within every person, and it is non restricted to the bounds of officially appointed leaders. They suggest that for leaders to be most successful, they need to help each person in the development of taking himself or herself. Leaderships become great by unleashing the possible and capablenesss of followings, hence holding the cognition of many people alternatively of trusting entirely on their ain accomplishments and abilities. Daniel Goleman was the first individual to present the thought of 'emotional intelligence ‘ in his book with the same rubric in 1995. In his research of around 200 big companies, he found that apart from the leading qualities like intelligence, stamina, finding and vision, which are needed to for a leader to be successful ; there is besides a demand for a high degree of emotional intelligence which includes self-awareness, self-regulation, motive, empathy and societal accomplishments. These qualities may sound soft but Goleman discovered strong relationships between emotional intelligence and the house ‘s public presentation. Harmonizing to Goleman, IQ and proficient accomplishments are the entry degree demands for any executive places. But Goleman ‘s research shows that emotional intelligence is the sine qua non of leading and without it, no affair if the individual has the best preparation in the universe, has an analytical head and a clump of superb thoughts, he still wont do a great leader ( Goleman, 1998 ) . Self-awareness is the first component of emotional intelligence, which makes sense when one believe that the Delphic prophet gave the advice to â€Å" cognize thyself † 1000s of old ages ago. Self-awareness means holding a deep apprehension of one ‘s emotions, strengths, failings, demands, and thrusts. Peoples with strong self-awareness are neither overly critical nor unrealistically hopeful. Rather, they are honorable with themselves and with others. Peoples with a high grade of self- consciousness place how their feelings affect them, the people around them, and their occupation public presentation. Therefore, a self-conscious individual who knows that he tilt handle tight deadlines, can be after his clip carefully and gets his work done good in progress. Self-awareness extends to a individual ‘s accepting of his values and ends ( Goleman, 1998 ) . Self-regulation is the component of emotional intelligence that frees us from being prisoner of our ain feelings. Peoples occupied in such a duologue feel bad tempers and emotional disposition merely as everyone else does, but they figure out ways to command them and to even impart them in utile ways. Peoples with self-regulation tend to take a different way in difficult times. They craft words in such a manner that the individual gets the message without doing him or her feel bad about it. Peoples who have control of their feelings and urges are able to craft an ambiance of trust and equity. In such an environment, political relations and bitching are aggressively reduced and end product is high. Gifted people congregate to the organisation and are n't tempted to go forth ( Goleman, 1998 ) . Motivation is one trait that all leaders possess. They are driven to accomplish beyond outlooks. Many of the people are motivated by external factors like higher wage, a esteemed rubric in the organisation or the taking company itself for which they are working. On the other manus, good leaders are motivated by a deeply embedded desire to accomplish something merely for the interest of accomplishing it. If one wants to mensurate the motivational degree of the leader, expression at the desire and passion for work itself. Such people look for originative challenges and love to larn new things. Empathy can be easy recognized out of all the other dimensions of emotional intelligence. It surely does non intend following others emotions as one ‘s ain and seek to delight them, instead empathy agencies sympathetically sing employees ‘ feelings along with other factors while doing intelligent determinations. Empathy is preponderantly indispensable today as a constituent of leading for at least three grounds: the increasing usage of squads ; the rapid gait of globalisation ; and the turning demand to retain endowment ( Goleman, 1998 ) . The first three dimensions of emotional intelligence are self-management accomplishments. The last two, empathy and societal accomplishment, trades with a individual ‘s endowment to pull off relationships with others. As an component of emotional intelligence, societal accomplishment is non every bit straightforward as it sounds. It ‘s non merely about friendliness, even though people with high degrees of societal accomplishment are seldom dishonorable. Social accomplishment, instead, is openness with a ground: traveling people in the way you want, whether that ‘s understanding on a new selling scheme or acuteness about a new merchandise. Social accomplishment is a decision of the other dimensions of emotional intelligence. Peoples tend to be really effective at pull offing associations when they can grok and command their ain emotions and can sympathize with the feelings of others. Even motive addendums to societal accomplishment. Peoples who are ambitious to carry through be given to be optimistic, even in the face of failure. When people are optimistic, their â€Å" freshness † is cast upon duologues and other societal brushs ( Goleman, 1998 ) . So can emotional intelligence be learned? For decennaries, people have been reasoning approximately are leaders born or made, and so does about emotional intelligence, are people born with certain degrees of empathy, for illustration, or do they get by existent life experiences? , the reply is both. Scientific research suggests that there is a familial constituent to emotional intelligence and that nature plays a critical function in development of such intelligence. But to what extent, one can non truly mensurate that out. One thing is for certain that emotional intelligence additions as the individual grows older but some people still need developing to develop emotional intelligence. Every individual is born with it, there is a demand to happen and develop it. Emotional intelligence is born mostly in the neurotransmitters of the encephalons limbic system, which administers feelings, urges, and thrusts. Research shows that the limbic system learns best through motive, drawn-out pat tern, and feedback. Compare this with the sort of larning that goes on in the neopallium which governs analytical and proficient ability. The neocortex appreciation constructs and logic. It is the portion of the encephalon that figures out how to utilize a computing machine or do a gross revenues call by reading a book. To hike emotional intelligence organisations must redeploy their preparation to include the limbic system. They must assist people interrupt old behavioral wonts and put up new 1s. That non merely takes much more clip than conventional preparation plans it besides requires an individualised attack. With dedication, continuity and pattern, such a procedure can hold a life long consequence. It ‘s of import to recognize that constructing 1s emotional intelligence can non and will non take topographic point without sincere desire and concentrated attempt. A brief seminar wo n't assist ; nor can one purchase a how-to manual. It is hard to larn to sympathize, to inte rnalise empathy as a natural response to people, than it is to go proficient at failure analysis. But it can be done. â€Å" Nothing great was of all time achieved without enthusiasm † wrote Ralph Waldo Emerson. If your end is to go a existent leader, these words can function as a usher in your attempts to develop high emotional intelligence ( Goleman, 1998 ) . Harmonizing to Day, there are six most influential techniques for leading development, i.e. 360-degree feedback, coaching, mentoring, networking, occupation assignments and action acquisition. 360-degree feedback involves assessment procedures within which the executives ( leaders ) gives feedback to the employees ( followings ) and have a feedback from them if possible at a higher, tantamount or lower degrees in the organisation. It is used to garner positions from the very important persons and the lower downs. This technique is used by many of the luck 500 organisations nevertheless the leading development portion has attracted some differences. Coaching and mentoring are two overlapping agencies of leading development. Both these attacks fit good with the construct of go throughing on the information to the less experient from the more experient one. Coaching is a term by and big related with the proviso of specific sets of behavioral accomplishments ( dialogue, communicating, presentation accomplishments would be typical leading illustrations ) . The procedures tend to presume that statute cognition is transferred from the trainer to the trainee. Mentoring, correspondent to training, is a classical term to specify the relationship between the wise man, the experient and knowing one, and a less experient receiver. Unlike coaching, the cognition transportation is less concerned with specific accomplishments and the acquired cognition is more likely to be dispersed. Mentoring is therefore more clearly developmental, and sometimes called as tacit accomplishments. This characteristic allows the possibility of informal mentoring relationships. Networking has been acknowledged within cognition direction research, as holding a connectivist footing. This draws a differentiation between theories which regard cognition as inborn in persons ( cognitivist theories ) and those concerned with relationships across persons ( connectivist theories ) . These theories believe that organisational constructions are self-structuring, as an result of the information flows through several connexions ( webs ) amongst its single members. The networking attack to leading development is the most obviously connectivist one. Job assignments have played a critical portion in the field of direction development programmes for many old ages. The simple hypothesis is that persons learn by being exposed to wide-ranging challenges of importance to current or future occupations. The statement has been widely applied to apologize concern exchanges, foreign deputations, even abroad school trips. It will be noted that a occupation assignment programme will inescapably hike a alteration in networking activities of those occupied, so that the appraisal of the one technique against the other is a complex affair. Action acquisition is an look applied to an extended scope of experiential acquisition procedures. The procedures tend to affect undertakings as the drive force for larning ; these are frequently directed towards of import concern jobs. It presents the impression of calculated engagement. The find procedure comes from the interior of a individual. The procedure comes with a demand to work through jobs of objectiveness and whether consequences could be generalized or non ( Rickards and Clark, 2006 ) . Apart from these patterns and attacks, there are many formal leading development establishments in the universe. The Centre for Creative Leadership ( CCL ) is considered as one of the most experient planetary leading development organisations in the universe. It was founded in 1970 in Greensboro, NC, USA and had developed itself as a universe leader with many other installations in the US, Europe and Asia. Even in the UK, Ashridge Management College built its extended leading programmes in the 1980s and 90s with the aid of its franchise from CCL. Manchester Business School ( MBS ) besides became a portion of the programme for proficient leading over a period of old ages through its Research & A ; Development Department ( Rickards and Clark, 2006 ) .DecisionThere is still much of a argument that ‘are leaders born or made ‘ , in my perceptual experience and by looking at a scope of articles and books, came to a decision that nevertheless there is an in-born component involv ed in the development of leading, preparation and development is still in much demand to foster explore and smooth that possible. As Goleman notes that ‘It would be foolish to asseverate that good-old-fashioned IQ and proficient ability are non of import ingredients in strong leading. But the formula would non be complete without emotional intelligence. It was one time thought that the constituents of emotional intelligence were â€Å" nice to hold † in concern leaders. But now we know that, for the interest of public presentation, these are ingredients that leaders â€Å" need to hold † ‘ ( Goleman, 1998 ) . The techniques identified by David Day are deserving observing. Whereas the formal techniques can be used in the development of leading, many other informal attacks can besides be considered. Informal squads can besides be setup in an organisations what can give informal but valuable feedback about a individuals behavior which than can be taken attenti on of. A individual may be born with leading accomplishments and may hold emotional intelligence to a certain degree, but when we look at eventualities, the leader has to be cognizant of the state of affairss and has to be pro-active instead than being re-active. Leadership development in footings of emotional intelligence is a drawn-out and clip devouring procedure but it is deserving puting in provided that the scholar is unfastened to all kinds of acquisition and has a passion and enthusiasm for it.